The elephant in the wild

Elephants are herd animals. In the wild, they lead a remarkably harmonious and cohesive migratory life, with a stable social order of family and extended family groups unmatched in the world of mammals. Matriarchal authority is exercised by experienced mother elephants who lead, protect and train the young. The herds on the open savannahs of East Africa offer the best insight into the rhythm of elephant life. There, the cycle of vegetation and the pattern of rainy and dry seasons force the elephants to undertake-great, annual migrations. Their cousins in the jungles and rain forests of Asia and the African forest elephants lead their lives in similar family groups out of sight behind the barrier of green foliage which provides protection and privacy.

The elephant matriarchy

Elephant life in the herd is governed by a matriarch; in family and clan, all authority is vested in experienced mother elephants who demand respect and are acknowledged as the herd leaders. They alone protect and lead the growing calves; they maintain order and harmony in the group; they face the foe with courage and aggression when danger threatens. The large, proud bulls also playa role in providing security, but they are not inclined to family life. They go their own way for long periods, travelling with bands of other males. They join the female groups only occasionally, at mating times. The core group in elephant herds is the family unit, which consists of two or three older females with their offspring; this group remains together and maintains its cohesion even in larger migratory herds. The role of each cow is clearly defined, from the leader to the rear guard.

Family groups usually number up to twenty or thirty animals of different ages. The leaders are usually sisters, who retain their association for life, though other, unrelated cows can join the group if a friendly understanding is achieved. Forming family groups provides greater security for the herd.

Periodic migrations along traditional routes

Each year at the beginning of the-dry season, roughly between June and November, the elephant herds leave their grazing grounds on the drying savannahs, following the same migration routes, for more hospitable locations near rivers and water sources which do not dry up completely.

The family groups then separate off from the larger herd. Limited food supplies in these dry- season retreats mean that they can cope better alone, as a smaller group. One cow vigilantly lea. ds at the front of the moving group, another follows to guard the rear. Roles are reversed if sudden withdrawal is called for. The young remain between them, under protection and supervision. If the group contains a third mother elephant, her role in the hierarchy will be to keep order among the playful youngsters.

Individual cows may travel with their calves, but individualism is not in their nature; it makes supervision and security more difficult amid the dangers of the wild. Cows grazing alone with their calves are particularly shy and suspicious, and this can easily transmit itself to the young elephants.

Often, between two and five family units, usually related, join to form larger 'bond groups.' The cows share the leadership and supervisory responsibilities according to age, experience and temperament. Since the bond group offers more security, the leaders allow greater freedom to the adolescent bulls. These travel ahead of the herd or alongside, which gives them the opportunity of practice ready for independence in the wild. Traveling bond groups may be accompanied by bands of males, though these usually graze apart.

When, with the arrival of the rainy season from October to December and March to June, the dried-up savannahs once more become green and lush, the elephant herds return to their old grazing grounds. At this time, the bands of males and solitary old bulls join the female clans, to create herds of a few hundred animals. For them, this is the time of competion for the favour of the females.

Sometimes, entire populations of elephants may join together in mass migration. A procession of 500 huge savannah elephants is a spectacular sight (see following double-page spread) stamping out their great trail across the savannah as if the elemental power of a whirlwind had swept through the area.

The elephants' regular migrations allow time for regeneration of areas exhausted by grazing. The commercial herds of cattle, constantly increasing in size and the practice of keeping them in fixed locations, make unvarying demands on and overstretch the resources of the finely- balanced, sparse savannahs. This is a serious environmental problem for African countries.

Incessant foraging

The daily life of the elephant is spent in a constant round of feeding. It takes time to fill the stomach of a fully-grown adult with the 330-375 pounds of vegetation it needs each day, and elephants spend some sixteen to eighteen hours grazing, ambling as they graze and walking for short distances between grazing sessions. Feeding even continues for half the night in an effort to fill the cavernous stomachs of the herd.

The elephant does not specialise in its choice of food plants, as do some species of mammal which are quite choosy; elephants even eat what buffalo or gazelle disdain. They will take grass and small plants, bushes, dry ripe plains grass, fruit, twigs, tree bark, and roots. Of course the giant creatures have their preferences; they can locate ripe fruit from a fair distance. If the food they prefer becomes scarce in times of drought, however, they change their feeding habits without apparent concern or harm to their digestive system.

It was this robust capacity to eat anything which enabled its forebears to establish themselves in such a variety of habitats. The grey giant also drinks up to about 40 gallons of water a day.

Times of rest are amazingly short. Elephants doze for no more than around four hours a day standing under trees, usually in the searing midday heat. Late in the night, they lie down to sleep on their sides for just two or three hours, breathing noisily and often lapsing into a comfortable snore. With the dawn, they are up, their enormous digestive systems shake themselves rapidly into wakefulness, and the herd moves off into the new day, grazing as it goes.

Salines and salt licks

Pools of water enriched with minerals are especially sought-after, and elephants' trunks are highly sensitive in locating these. Plains grass does not provide all the trace elements the animals require, so elephant herds regularly visit sites where they have found salt-containing earth. They churn up the ground with their tusks, and put the dislodged pieces of soil into their mouths with their trunks. In some places, holes several feet deep can be hollowed out in this way. This is how elephants open up salt licks, and make vital minerals accessible to other animals.

In Kenya's Mount Elgon National Park, elephants have for centuries been going to the lava caves of the mountain, a volcano on the Ugandan border, to obtain salts and minerals, and in the course of time they have hollowed out deep caverns in the mountainside. In Asia, southern India and Sumatra, too, elephants in search of salt have carved up whole hills.

Bathing: the elephants' greatest delight

Elephants delight in bathing. After the herd has been ambling and grazing for hours on end in the heat of the sun, the animals' steps quicken as they sense with their trunks the nearness of the water, be it river, lake or pool, which is their goal. The mighty animals are tempted on in even as they drink. Snorting, they fling the great weight of their bodies into the water, wallowing as the young splash and play.

Bathing plays an essential role for elephants in the care of their bodies. Their wrinkled, furrowed skin is by no means as coarse, protective and insensitive as it may look. When parasites bite or pierce their skin, the blood oozes. After bathing, the elephants wallow in the mud or spray their wet skin with dust, which dries to a crust and helps provide a remedy for the insect plague. They then rub the afflicted parts of their skin against a rock or tree, and a fair number of the blood-suckers can be scraped off with the mud crust.

Birds such as oxpeckers are a welcome help to the elephants. They remove and eat ticks from the folds of the animals' skin and around their eyes. Rhinoceros wallow in the mud in a very similar way, and terrapins. sometimes help rid them of similar parasites while the hosts lie dozing in muddy puddles. Perhaps elephants in wallows enjoy the help of similar assistants.

The sparse savannahs of East Africa cannot always offer the daily bath which elephants find so necessary. They often have to content themselves with digging out a waterhole with their tusks and front legs in order to quench their thirst.

The males' trials of strength

Although the adult bulls join the female herds only at mating times, their function is by no means only to engender offspring. Their size and strength as well as the superior, huge tusks with which they are armed make them a force to be reckoned with as guardians of traditional grazing territory and of herds on the move. They are on hand to cover the retreat or to protect a fellow member of the species in distress. They lead a quiet and exclusive life in the company of other males, aloof from the noise of the nursery, and have no wish to be disturbed. The females, knowing this, keep a cautious distance. If a youngster's attempts to play irritate a grumpy giant of a bull, the over-playful calf may end up with a box on the ears. .

A strict hierarchical order operates within the male bands, which is repeatedly re-established and re-adjusted by trials of strength whenever a strange bull joins the group. The composition of the male band varies, unlike that of the female groups, which associate for life. The trials of strength are almost always carried out with moderation and without bloodshed; young bulls' head-butting sessions are early experiments.

Once a rival bull has been pushed to defeat in a duel and turns away, the victor usually only pursues him for a couple of paces. Bulls which are obviously weaker and less virile frequently refuse to duel, making gestures of submission. Bowing their heads and flattening their ears, they place their trunks in the mouth or under the chin of the superior bull. A confident, higher-ranking bull shows his superiority by proudly carrying his head high, his ears spread in warning and his trunk relaxed or reaching victoriously for the temporal gland of the subordinate animal.

Now and again, it does happen that two hostile bulls rush at each other in a furious fight to the death. The unfortunate beast which turns away first, leaving its unprotected body vulnerable for a moment to the other's cruel tusks, pays the ultimate price of an agonising death.

Male bands, too, have herd leaders which walk on ahead and which guard the rear. It is not only brute strength or the dignity of age which earns them this rank; younger bulls can distinguish themselves by their self-confidence, courage and judicious behaviour. The quiet-natured, peaceable bulls do not seek leadership rank, and provide a stabilising element in the group, whose order can sometimes be threatened by obstinate and aggressive individuals. Less sociable animals prefer to go and lead a solitary existence.

Young, strong bulls love to try their strength at pushing over trees. Small trees of up to about 18 inches circumference can be felled by any head, trunk or foreleg, but only one or two bulls in a group seem to make tree-felling their speciality.

They perfect it to a fine art. With skill, a tree-feller can bring down trees with a circumference of maybe as much as 5ft. First of all, he pushes at the tree from different directions, testing it. Then, under the pressure of some hefty blows, he sets the tree swaying until it falls with a crash. His companions immediately come rushing up to feast on the succulent foliage and twigs which they love, as the warrior looks on unperturbed, his work completed. Bark-strippers can also do a great deal of damage in, the small woods and clumps of trees of the savannahs. They carve into the trunk with a tusk, then tear off long strips with their trunks and chew them with their mighty molars. The bark is a favourite food and contains calcium and roughage, important for good digestion. Young animals quite often tear off bark for fun. In Asia, where the females have no tusks, bulls frequently perform the gentlemanly task of peeling the bark for them.

Rogues and other loners

In the wild, there are many instances of solitary elephants, and these can be dangerous individuals. The lone elephants are usually old bulls which have had to leave their traditional territory after losing a leadership contest against a younger, stronger rival. Alternatively, they may be awkward-natured animals which failed to fit in with the herd and were driven out.

Bulls which have been seriously injured by a badly-aimed bullet from a hunter or poacher are particularly dangerous. They conceal themselves under cover, masters of disguise, and strike without warning. These are the much-feared 'rogues.'

However, there are also peaceable, solitary philosophers among the lone elephants, who simply enjoy being alone and prefer solitude. Not all bulls are fighting for rank and dominance.

Birth

Finally the time of lovemaking is over, and the pregnant cow elephants return to grazing in their female herds, self-sufficient again. The bulls resume their travelling life along with the bands of males.

The length of pregnancy for a cow elephant is from 20-22 months. As the time of the birth approaches, she seeks the close companionship of a fellow female who remains with her to protect her once labour begins. Rangers report that in African savannah elephants, the herd sometimes forms a circle around the female giving birth to guard her from all sides, trumpeting and snorting.

The elephant gives birth standing, and the birth itself takes just a few minutes, accompanied by a great panting. The 'aunt' stands protectively behind the mother giving birth. The calf is usually born head and forelegs first, and after only a few minutes, it is able to stand up, assisted and supported by its mother and aunt, on still rather shaky diminutive elephant legs.

The afterbirth is often consumed by the mother, to avoid attracting predators; all signs are carefully removed. In the forests of Asia, one fifth of the helpless babies fall victim to tigers. In Africa, packs of hyenas lie in wait. Lions normally attack elephant calves only if there is no other prey to be had.

A newly-born elephant calf stands about 3 feet high, with quite thick body hair and weighing about 220 pounds. Its trunk is still short; the calf cannot yet use it and so drinks with its mouth. Soon after birth, it seeks out its mother's teats. She has two, between her front legs. Two days after it is born, the calf is strong enough to join the herd, which has meanwhile been waiting nearby. Twins have been known, but are rare.

Baby elephants live on their mothers' milk alone for the first 6 months. It is very high in fat, and the protein content is 100 times higher than that of cow's milk. They drink around 21 pints a day. The special composition of elephant milk meant that, for a long time, it was seldom possible to keep orphaned calves alive, but eventually a mixture was arrived at which was easily digestible and contained all the necessary nutrients for daily requirements: 9 1/2 pints raw cow's milk, 9 1/2 ?1 oz cream, the white of 24 hen's eggs and 4 pounds of well-boiled rice water. An Asian legend tells of another life-saving diet:

There was a wondrously white elephant calf, which was revered as holy. This calf had lost its mother and had already become too weak to stand. It was brought to the king of Burma, and the king was most concerned. He ordered twenty-four young women to be brought to the palace as wet- nurses. All was done as he commanded, and behold, the elephant calf thrived at the women's breasts, where he was suckled for five years, as the story tells us ...

If anything befalls the mother of a calf which is still being suckled, other cow elephants with nursing calves will frequently, though not always, adopt the youngster. In the wild, an orphaned calf (which will trot after anyone, even a human, like a puppy) that does not find an adoptive mother to look after it becomes easy prey for tigers, hyenas, lions and other predators.

Between their fourth and sixth months of life, the young elephants begin to use their fast- developing trunks, which are beginning to be a hindrance when suckling, to pick grass and leaves and feed these into their mouths. Gradual weaning follows. A female elephant is able to become pregnant again about a year after giving birth, so she may bring up to twelve calves into the world during her lifetime.

The nursery

In the matriarchal family unit it is not simply sacrificial mother-love which surrounds the tiny calves. Young at various stages of maturity enjoy the care of the whole herd. There is a touching and harmonious co-operation on the part of mothers, aunts and sisters which continues for years to ensure the protection and training of the young, and their preparation for the hard struggle for existence ahead.

Still helpless, the suckling calf remains under the constant care of its mother, who supports, leads and caresses it with her trunk. She is there when her calf needs a push to help it down a steep embankment, she urges the youngster to overcome its fear of water and bathe, she showers it with water and dust, and she assists it across rivers where the current is flowing too strongly for it.

The mother shows endless patience when the calf becomes exhaustingly playful and curious, pushes its way under her tall legs and disturbs her peace with its unruly young trunk. The leader of the female herd adjusts the pace so that every animal in it can keep up. The calves learn from the cows which plants are good to eat, and to be aware of possible dangers. As the young become old enough to be rebellious, play too wildly and venture too far from the herd in their curiosity - which can all too easily lead to disaster -a corrective slap from an adult trunk comes on cue.

Up to the age of about 8 years, the onset of sexual maturity, young bulls too remain in the family group, under the supervision and leadership of the adult females; only at that stage are they urged towards independence and driven away. They often continue for a while to stay near the herd which afforded them such protection. Then they join a passing band of males, and go their own way from this point on.

Young bulls still in the family groups are hard to distinguish from the adult females; by the age of five, they are as tall as 15 to 20-year-old cows, with, tusks of similar length.

Mighty, but not proof against disease

Elephants in the wild enjoy robust health, but even they are not proof against disease. They can suffer and die from a range of ills, and there is an extensive literature dealing with ways of treating them. As long ago as the days of ancient India there existed a host of writings on the treatment of elephant disorders. Looking beyond this or that quack method, we find that the ancient Hindu people had a good knowledge of natural remedies. The invocation of gods and demons accompanied the practical cures and treatments, in accordance with their world-view.

The most frequently fatal disease affecting elephants is anthrax, which repeatedly kills hundreds of animals. A rod-shaped bacillus, it enters the circulation and causes high fever, shivering, blood-containing discharge from the bladder, stomach and intestines, ulcers and swellings. The disease causes horrifyingly intense suffering and is almost always fatal. It has wiped out entire elephant families and their kin.

There are illnesses specific to elephants, such as paralysis of the trunk and elephant pox, especially feared in zoo elephant houses. Pustules form in the mouth, on the trunk and on the thighs, pus and patches of decay appear between the toes; even the sole of the foot can break away. Without urgent help, death is likely.

Elephants in the wild are also at risk from foot and mouth disease and a number of tropical diseases spread by mosquitoes. They are also liable to several disorders which affect human beings, including intestinal colic, net Lie rash, and pneumonia, and complaints such as constipation and even the common cold.

For those animals which fall ill in ,captivity, today's pharmaceutical industry does have remedies available. Once an elephant recognizes that someone is trying to help, it will endure treatment patiently, even painful procedures like lancing an abscess. The treatment must be carried out quickly, though, so that the elephant does not become fearful.

In the wild, instinct makes the animals take the right course of action in response to injury or the pain of disease. Elephants suffering from digestive disorders may fast, or fill their stomachs with plant remedies, bitter herbs and bark, or alkaline earth. They bathe wounds thoroughly and smear them with mud, which keeps away flies and limits infestation by worms, and if suffering the pain of an abscess on a tusk, an elephant will often strike the tusk against a tree and lever at it for hours until the tooth comes out. There are many examples of different ways in which elephants heal themselves with remedies passed on from one generation to the next.

An elephant is no Methuselah

Towards the end of the 19th century it was still thought in Europe that the elephant-possessed a vigor in keeping with its primeval size and strength, and reached a phenomenal age, 100 years or more. But the life span given to the elephant is not one to place it in a class with the biblical forefather Methuselah, who reached the astonishing age of 969 years, according to the book of Genesis.

An elephant is old at 60 years, and easily recognisable by its wrinkled skin and the leanness of its head, sunken around the temples and eyes. Most die considerably earlier, although especially vigorous animals can occasionally live to 70 or 80 years of age.

The life span of any creature depends on the environmental conditions in which it lives. For the elephants of today, habitats in the wild are shrinking and becoming poorer. The outlook is still more dismal for animals in captivity, under the stress of circus life, and in the mental misery of confined quarters.

The idea comes across in an Indian song of praise to the elephant: The greatest joy of the elephant is the freedom from restrictions ... Whatever his heart tells him, the elephant will do; his food he chooses freely, his home is where he wills ...Fulfilment of his wishes blossoms into joy for him, and irresistibly from joy comes strength. In fullness of joy the fires of life glow bright. The consequence of harmony of the materials of his body is that illnesses have no power ...The whole is thrown into reverse the moment the elephants of the wild are brought to the dwelling-places of those known as humanity ...

Old elephants or those which are mortally ill usually die alone, away from the herd, having left to seek solitude in their weakness. When, however, an old, grey giant which has lost its last 'molar teeth succumbs to injury, illness or the weakness of age within the herd, its companions surround it with touching concern. Indian observers and rangers in Africa have often seen the herd pause a while around their unfortunate fellow elephant, then try to help the animal to stand if there is still breath, and lay their trunks gently across the body as death fInally takes hold.

Whenever in their noisy travels elephants come across skeletons of their kind, they pause in sudden silence, touch the remains with their trunks, and sometimes carry tusks or bones with them for a while as they journey on.

Tales of elephant graveyards, where old and Weak or fatally injured animals withdraw to die in dignity, undisturbed and unobserved by humans, are no more than stories. The places are said to be inaccessible, secluded marshes where the huge, lifeless bodies disappear without trace. To prevent the collection of bones from being salvaged and desecrated by poachers, the saying goes, the herd guards over it, and anyone who tries to reach the graveyards risks his life ...

The fact is, the elephant dies wherever on its journeyings fate overtakes it.

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